The oldest and longest-standing Christian denominations are housed by the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. Each of these sects has their own varying beliefs and traditions which often date back to Jesus’s first disciples. These groups have constantly been in conflict throughout their history despite both believing in Christ. This ongoing hostility highlights the historical importance of the time they attempted to come together to reconcile these differences.
Members of the Catholic Church hold many of the same beliefs as Orthodox Christians, however, they differ in a few important areas. Catholic ideas on the Trinity and the hierarchical structure that governs their faith are the most significant causes for disagreement between the two. The Holy Trinity is extremely important in all Christian sects. Almost every Christian denomination including Catholics agrees that the Holy Trinity is God in three equal persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The main disagreement with Eastern Orthodoxy is from whom the holy spirit proceeded. Catholicism believes that “the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life proceeds from the Father and the Son”(Catholics, Believe). The key disagreement is over the end of the statement which references “the son”. Catholics state that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both God the Father and Christ the Son, a significant theological divergence from Orthodoxy.
On top of these disagreements over their belief in the identity of the Trinity, these groups also have extremely varying hierarchical structures. These structures function as nearly their own governments who establish the “laws” of the faith in relation to doctrinal matters. At the top of the Catholic clergy sits the Pope: the highest authority and final decision-maker on all doctrinal matters. Combined with the bishops, the pope determines church policy through ecumenical councils. These councils are formal meetings of bishops and other church leaders to address doctrinal and practical matters. Today Rome recognizes 21 ecumenical councils which often convene without the Pope’s presence. Although the Pope does not attend, he still has the final say on any decision made by these councils.
In relation to the “laws” or beliefs set down by this structure, Catholics, like all modern Christians, believe that Christ came to fulfill the Old Testament and Halakha. They also maintain that he sacrificed himself for the sins of humanity. Despite this, they still adhere to the moral aspects of Jewish law such as the timeless Ten Commandments. However, Catholics have a unique interpretation of how governmental laws should look. Extending on the previous foundation, Catholics use the concept of “natural law” as a guide for moral reasoning—a concept coined by the theologian St. Thomas Aquinas. Natural law states that certain moral principles are inherent in human nature and can be discerned by reason. This combination of divine law, natural law, and Papal authority determines the method by which Catholics view morality, social issues, and how they live Christian lives.
While Eastern Orthodoxy shares some Catholic principles, they pride themself on the belief that they are the only ones who have properly preserved the original teachings and customs of the church of Jesus Christ. To Orthodox Christians, the holy traditions and Scripture are equally imperative to understanding and worshiping Christ: both are believed to have been directly passed down from the apostles to the early Church Fathers, which were preserved for contemporary Christian use. Eastern Orthodoxy’s differing views from Catholics over the Trinity and the hierarchical structure which governs their faith were both important factors that lead to their divorce in 1054. Orthodox Christians believe the Holy Spirit proceeds from God the Father alone, not Christ the Son. This one minor detail has major implications for each respective faith.
In Orthodoxy, the Church is considered not just an institution, but the Body of Christ. This idea comes from Paul’s letter in Ephesians when he spoke of how “God placed all things under his feet and appointed him to be head over everything for the church, which is his body, the fullness of him who fills everything in every way”(Ephes. 1:22-23). This concept summarizes the main tendencies of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Each believer is a vital part of the Church’s mission and therefore contributes to the whole body. Based on this principle, the Orthodox Church has set up a structure of governance to determine their laws and doctrines. Unlike Catholicism (which has the Pope as a figure of centralized power), Orthodox Christianity is more decentralized. The church still has a head figure called the “Patriarch”, but he is only considered the “head bishop”, with no more power than the others. The Patriarch is more of a figurehead and spokesperson for the church. Councils of bishops make policy decisions rather than any individual leader. This means that decisions or interpretations of doctrine are made collectively and almost democratically.
While there had long been conflict between the Eastern and Western churches, their disagreements can be dated back to the long-standing tensions between Eastern Christendom and Western Rome. These tensions would culminate with the Great Schism of 1054 which caused the official division of the Christian Church. Before the Schism, there was one united Church that developed a uniform declaration of faith at the Council of Nicea in 325 CE. This creed was ratified in Constantinople with the second ecumenical council in 381 CE. The purpose of this council was to establish and codify the official beliefs of the church. Slowly after ratification, western bishops (beginning in Spain) started to add the Filioque clause (Filioque translating to “and son” in Latin). The clause specifically states that “the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father ‘and Son’… The two churches are still not in agreement on the Filioque Clause.” (Filioque Clause). The purpose of this addition by the West was to combat Arianism, an idea which claimed that Jesus was not divine or equal to God the Father. The addition of the Filioque clause to the Nicene Creed strengthened the idea of equal divinity of the Son with the Father. This would result in a heated debate with the Eastern Orthodox Church which held fast that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father alone. The Filioque Clause originally gained “popularity in the Christian West, interestingly, except in Rome, where Pope Leo III in 809 CE refused to add it to the Nicene Creed. Nevertheless, it was officially added by Pope Benedict VIII in 1024 CE (Story Behind Filioque).
Shortly after this addition, Pope Leo IX excommunicated the patriarch of Constantinople, who would then return the favor and excommunicate the Pope. This could be seen as the straw that broke the camel’s back. Even before this, many Eastern Orthodox Christians were becoming weary of the growing power of the Pope in Rome. Originally, ecumenical councils had to be called by an emperor. As the power of the Western Church grew, the Pope started to call these councils himself. From this and many other minor incursions, the Eastern Orthodox Church no longer respected decisions made by these councils. This primary division and the power struggle that ensued were the original causes of tensions between the East and West. The schism could not have been avoided. The church was now split along the same divide that had previously split the Roman Empire. This previous division of the Roman empire was also a contributing element to the schism. Factors such as “time and isolation between the Christian East and the West contributed to the 1054 Schism between Orthodox and Catholics”(Story Behind the Filioque). Since the schism, the gap between the two has only grown.
Between 1438 and 1439, Catholic and Orthodox Churches would meet at the Council of Florence in one last attempt to collaborate and make a plan for unification. The main topic of discussion during the meeting was the events that had happened in the past which had led to the current state of tension between the two groups. While this was logical in theory, there ended up being “disagreement about what has happened or what should happen. Who said what and who did what? Who was right, who meant what and who’s to blame” (Stone, 15) This council was convoked by Pope Eugene with the goal of mending the rift between the two. This sudden drive for reconciliation was due to fears over the looming fall of the Byzantine Empire. There was a desire to gain military support from the Western Catholic forces sparked by the Muslim Ottoman Empire at the doors of Constantinople. Often when two groups have been stuck in perpetual conflict, “A common goal might be the only thing that (can) unites you and gets you both facing the same direction”(Fowler, 222). After a year of negotiations, they would find common ground and reach agreements over issues such as the Filioque clause as well as Papal authority. Despite the formal declaration of Unification between the groups, the Orthodox clergy and populace largely rejected this compromise. They believed that it was a betrayal of their beliefs and their commitment to tradition. Following this rejection of compromise, Constantinople fell to the Ottomans in 1453. This marked the end of efforts towards reconciliation. Although this optimism was short-lived, this council was a historic example of greatly differing groups attempting to find common ground and reconcile their differences in a time of great turmoil and strife.
Works Cited
Coogan, Michael David, et al., editors. The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha : an Ecumenical Study Bible. Oxford University Press, 2018. “East-West Schism | Summary, History, & Effects.” Britannica,
https://www.britannica.com/event/East-West-Schism-1054. Accessed 7 November 2024. Fowler, Clare E. Rising Above Office Conflict: A Light-Hearted Guide for the Heavy-Hearted Employee. Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Incorporated, 2023.
Stone, Douglas, et al. Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most. Penguin Publishing Group, 2023.
“What do Catholics believe?” Diocese of Lansing,
https://www.dioceseoflansing.org/general/what-do-catholics-believe. Accessed 7 November 2024.
“What is the filioque clause / filioque controversy? | GotQuestions.org.” Got Questions, 25 July 2022, https://www.gotquestions.org/filioque-clause-controversy.html. Accessed 7 November 2024.
“What’s the Story Behind the [Filioque Clause]? | By Tiffany Butler — The Anglican Diocese of Cascadia.” The Anglican Diocese of Cascadia, 24 May 2021,
https://www.cascadiadiocese.org/articles/2021/5/23/whats-the-story-behind-the-filioque-c lause-by-tiffany-butler. Accessed 7 November 2024.
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